Odisha, a coastal state located on the eastern coast of India, is renowned for its rich cultural heritage and historical significance. The state’s temple architecture stands out as one of the most distinct and elaborate styles in Indian architecture. The temples of Odisha, often referred to as the Kalinga style or Odisha style of architecture, have a profound influence on the religious, cultural, and artistic landscape of India. This article delves deeply into the various facets of Odisha’s temple architecture, exploring its historical evolution, distinctive features, architectural components, and the significance of these temples in the cultural and spiritual life of the people.
Architecture in Odisha found its supreme expression in the form of temples, some of which are among, finest in the country. Of these, three are most famous the Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneswar (11th century), the Jagannath Temple at Puri (12th century) and the great Sun Temple at Konark (13th century). These mark the culmination of a distinct style of architecture called the Kalinga style remarkable in its plan elevation and details of decoration. In the simplest form, a temple of this style consists of a 
structural due, the main temple or shrine and the frontal porch. Jagannath TempleWhile the main temple, called Vimana or Deula, is the sanctum enshrining the deity the porch or assembly hall called Jagamohana is the place for the congregation of devotees. The former, constructed on a square base, has a soaring curvilinear tower (sikhara) and is known as rekha deula. The laatter built on a rectangular base is a pidha temple, i.e. its roof consists of pidhas which are horizontal platforms arranged successively iii a receding formation so as to constitute a pyramidal superstructure.- Although the two temples are architecturally different, they are constructed in axial alignment and interconnected so as to form an integral pattern.
This two-part structure in the earliest form of temple construction is noticeable in the Parsurameswar temple of Bhubaneswar (7th century). A modest specimen of the Bhubaneswar-Lakshmaneswar group of early temples, it has a squattish type of curvilinear sikhara and an oblong pillared jagamohana. Lingaraja TempleThe scupltures on the temple walls are also notable for their simplicity and beauty. The Kalinga style reached its perfection during the Ganea period when two more structures were added the front of the two-part temple in order to meet the needs of the elaborate rituals; these are the natamandira (dancing hall) and the bhogamandapa (hall of offerings). The four halls of structure as at Lingaraja and Jagannatha, stand in one line with emphasis on the towering sikhara of the main shrine. However, the devotees have to enter through the side doors of the jagamohana leaving the tamandira and bhogamandapa behind.
Temple building activities in Odisha continued uninterrupted between the 7th and 16th centuries. As different religious sects had their successive sway over the land during this period, they provided the necessary fillip for modifications in the architectural designs and sculptural details. The Vaital temple at Bhubaneswar and the Varahi temple at Chaurasi in the Prachi Valley with their semicylindrical roofs are examples of a different order of temples described as E(hakhara type in the shiIpasastras. The former with its tower resembling a topsy-turvied boat and the later with its barrel-vaulted top are dedicated to the goddess Chamunda and Varahi respectively. The silhouetted interior of the sanctum and the sculptural motifs in the niches of the temples bear the influence of Shakti cult.
Historical Overview of Odisha’s Temple Architecture
The architectural style of Odisha’s temples can be traced back to the early centuries of the Common Era. The earliest temples of Odisha, dating back to the 5th century CE, were constructed by the Bhauma-Kara dynasty and later by the Ganga dynasty. Over time, the temples evolved in both scale and complexity, reflecting the growing sophistication of religious and cultural practices.
The first major phase in the development of Odisha’s temple architecture began with the reign of the Bhauma-Kara dynasty in the 8th century CE. These temples were typically small and simple, with few elaborations. However, as the Ganga dynasty came into power in the 10th century CE, there was a significant leap in architectural innovation, with temples becoming larger, more ornate, and more symbolic.
The Golden Age of Odisha’s temple architecture occurred during the Ganga period, particularly between the 11th and 13th centuries. It was during this period that the iconic temples of Odisha, including the Sun Temple at Konark and the Jagannath Temple at Puri, were built. These temples reflect the height of architectural achievement and represent the aesthetic and religious aspirations of the time.
Architectural Style: Characteristics and Components
Odisha’s temple architecture is known for its grandeur, intricacy, and unique layout. It is based on a specific set of architectural principles that distinguish it from other styles in India. The key features of the Odisha temple style include the following:
1. Shikhara (The Tower)
The most defining feature of Odisha temples is the Shikhara, the towering spire that rises above the sanctum sanctorum or the central chamber of the temple. Unlike the curvilinear shikharas
found in North India, the Shikhara of Odisha temples is more pronounced and straight, tapering as it rises. The tower is typically adorned with intricate carvings and sculptures that depict various deities, celestial beings, and mythological stories. These towers are designed to symbolize Mount Meru, the mythical center of the universe in Hindu cosmology, and to represent the connection between the divine and the earthly realms.
The Shikhara is one of the most prominent and distinguishing features of temple architecture in Odisha, and indeed across much of India. In the context of Odisha’s temple architecture, the Shikhara holds immense symbolic, aesthetic, and structural significance. This towering spire is not merely a visual element but a carefully planned and meticulously executed feature that conveys spiritual and cosmological meanings, while also serving a vital architectural function. Understanding the Shikhara requires a closer examination of its form, function, symbolism, and role in the overall design of Odisha temples.
Architectural Form and Structure
In Odisha temple architecture, the Shikhara refers to the towering, pyramidal structure that rises above the Sanctum Sanctorum (the innermost chamber of the temple, which houses the primary deity or deities). The Shikhara is a defining feature of temples and dominates the skyline, symbolizing the temple’s celestial significance. The Shikhara is an integral component of the Vimana, the main vertical structure of the temple that encompasses both the sanctum and the tower above.
The Odisha style of Shikhara differs from other regions in India, notably the curvilinear Shikhara found in temples of North India and the stepped pyramidal form typical of South Indian temples. In Odisha, the Shikhara is generally a straight and pronounced tower, tapering as it ascends, creating a distinctive silhouette that can be recognized in temples across the state. The structure consists of several horizontal tiers that decrease in size as the tower rises. These tiers are often decorated with intricate carvings, which may depict gods, mythological motifs, celestial beings, and geometrical designs.
The tower itself is typically crowned with a small Kalasha (a decorative water pot) or a Amalak (a circular stone finial), adding the final touch to the verticality of the Shikhara. The spire and its upper sections often symbolize a spiritual ascent or a connection to the heavens.
Symbolism of the Shikhara
In Odisha temple architecture, the Shikhara is laden with rich symbolism. One of the most profound symbols associated with the Shikhara is that it represents Mount Meru, which is considered to be the center of the universe in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain cosmology. Mount Meru is a mythical mountain that connects the heavens, the earthly realm, and the underworld. The central, towering spire of the Shikhara is designed to echo this cosmic axis, symbolizing the connection between the divine and the mortal worlds.
The height of the Shikhara is also symbolic of the ascent of the soul towards liberation or Moksha. It can be seen as an architectural representation of a spiritual journey, wherein the devotee ascends from the earthly realm (represented by the base of the temple) towards the celestial, divine realm (represented by the peak of the Shikhara). The Shikhara, therefore, functions not only as an aesthetic feature but also as a vehicle for spiritual elevation.
Another important symbolic aspect of the Shikhara is the Mandala—a sacred geometric diagram used in Hinduism and other Indian religions. Many temples in Odisha are constructed around a specific Mandala design, and the Shikhara is designed in alignment with this sacred geometric structure. The Shikhara’s tiers and its ornamentation often incorporate Mandalic patterns, which symbolize the divine order of the cosmos.
Design Elements and Ornamentation
The Shikhara is meticulously crafted, often with highly detailed ornamentation, that reflects the skill and artistry of the temple builders. In Odisha temples, the Shikhara is not a mere structural element, but also a canvas for religious and artistic expression.
- Carvings and Sculptures: The surface of the Shikhara is adorned with intricate carvings that feature a wide array of religious motifs. These carvings often include depictions of gods, goddesses, celestial beings, animals, mythological stories, and divine symbols. The idea behind these sculptures is that they bring the divine into physical space, transforming the temple into a spiritual microcosm.
The uppermost section of the Shikhara often includes images of deities associated with the temple’s presiding god or goddess. For example, in the Jagannath Temple at Puri, the Shikhara features detailed carvings of Lord Jagannath and other deities. In addition to the deities, the carvings often include depictions of celestial beings such as apsaras (heavenly nymphs), gandharvas (divine musicians), and nagas (serpent beings), whose role is to maintain the cosmic order.
- Stupa-like Tiers: A unique feature of the Shikhara in Odisha temples is its tiered structure. Each tier of the Shikhara is usually adorned with elaborate carvings, with the number of tiers varying from temple to temple. The tiers serve both an aesthetic and symbolic purpose. They symbolize layers of reality that the devotee must transcend to reach the divine. The tiers are often richly decorated with geometric patterns, lotus motifs, and representations of nature and life.
- The Amalak and Kalasha: At the pinnacle of the Shikhara, a finial or ornament such as the Amalak (a circular stone) or the Kalasha (a water pot) is placed. The Amalak represents the central axis of the cosmos, the source of all creation, and the ultimate goal of spiritual life, which is Moksha. The Kalasha, in contrast, represents the eternal and ever-flowing divine energy, symbolizing prosperity and abundance. These elements reinforce the connection between the temple’s divine purpose and the cosmic order.
The Role of the Shikhara in the Temple Layout
In Odisha temples, the Shikhara serves as the focal point of the temple’s architecture, drawing the eyes upwards towards the heavens. Its imposing height and intricate design serve to reinforce the centrality of the deity housed within the temple. The positioning and alignment of the Shikhara are carefully planned to integrate with the temple’s overall spatial design.
The Shikhara is typically oriented along an axis that aligns with significant celestial events, such as the path of the sun. For instance, the Shikhara of the Konark Sun Temple is designed to capture the first rays of the sun, symbolizing the temple’s dedication to the Sun God, Surya. The Shikhara’s precise alignment with celestial movements further reinforces the idea that the temple is not just a place of worship, but a cosmic observatory, aligned with the rhythms of the universe.
The Shikhara also serves a structural function. It helps balance the temple’s weight distribution, ensuring stability and durability over time. The multiple tiers of the Shikhara, along with the decorative carvings and sculptures, provide strength to the temple, while simultaneously enhancing its aesthetic grandeur.
2. Deula (Temple Structure)
The Deula is the overall temple structure that houses the sanctum sanctorum. It consists of three main parts:
- Vimana: This is the vertical part of the temple that houses the inner sanctum, and it includes the Shikhara.
- Jagamohana: The front hall or porch, typically with intricate stone carvings, is used for gatherings and rituals.
- Natamandira: The dance hall, or Natamandira, often found in larger temples, was traditionally used for ritual dances and performances.
These elements are built in a manner that enhances the temple’s spiritual energy, aligning with the principles of Vastu Shastra, the ancient Indian science of architecture.
3. Plinth and Mandapa
Odisha temples are characterized by their massive, raised plinths, which elevate the structure from the ground. The plinth serves not only an aesthetic function but also a structural one, ensuring that the temple is preserved from moisture and erosion. The Mandapa is the open porch area that leads to the sanctum, and it often features finely sculpted pillars. The pillars themselves are one of the most notable features of Odisha temples, with elaborate carvings and detailed iconography.
In Odisha temple architecture, the plinth is an essential structural feature that plays a significant role both functionally and symbolically. The plinth is a raised platform on which the temple building is constructed, elevating the temple from the surrounding ground level. It serves to protect the temple from water and moisture, ensuring that the foundation remains stable and secure over time. In the humid climate of Odisha, this elevation is particularly crucial for the preservation of the temple’s structure. By raising the temple above the ground, the plinth also provides an aesthetic sense of grandeur, making the temple appear as though it is an ethereal structure, floating above the earthly realm.
The plinth is usually made of stone and is carefully shaped and decorated with intricate carvings. These carvings often include geometric patterns, images of deities, divine creatures, and mythological motifs, enhancing the visual appeal of the temple. In many cases, the plinth is elaborately sculpted, with a series of steps or platforms that lead up to the temple’s entrance. The plinth not only elevates the temple physically but also metaphorically represents the first step towards spiritual elevation, as devotees approach the temple and its sanctum to seek blessings from the deity housed within.
The Mandapa is another crucial architectural element in Odisha temples. It refers to the hall or pavilion that serves as a space for congregation, rituals, and worship before the central sanctum of the temple. The Mandapa is usually positioned in front of the main temple and often serves as a transitionary space between the external world and the divine presence inside the sanctum.
One of the key features of the Mandapa is the pillars that support the roof, and these pillars are often the most elaborately decorated part of the Mandapa. The pillars are carved with a range of motifs, from floral patterns to depictions of gods, goddesses, and celestial beings. Some Mandapas are open on all sides, while others are enclosed with intricate stone latticework. The hall is used for various religious activities, including the performance of rituals, recitation of prayers, and other devotional acts. In larger temples, the Mandapa is often a place for religious dances, with the Natamandira (dance hall) being a specific type of Mandapa where temple dancers perform the classical Odissi dance as a form of devotion.
In some temples, there may be more than one Mandapa. For example, the Jagamohana, or the Assembly Hall, in larger temples like the Jagannath Temple in Puri or the Lingaraj Temple in Bhubaneswar, is a kind of Mandapa that provides a space for devotees to gather, listen to religious discourses, or watch the ceremonies that take place in the inner sanctum. The Natamandira is specifically designed for dance performances during temple festivals, such as the Rath Yatra in Puri. Together, the Mandapa and the plinth contribute to the temple’s functionality, aesthetic appeal, and spiritual atmosphere, serving as spaces where the divine presence is honored and worshiped by both priests and devotees.
4. Carvings and Sculptures
The temples of Odisha are known for their intricate and elaborate stone carvings, which are considered some of the finest examples of Indian sculpture. The walls, ceilings, and pillars of these temples are adorned with a variety of motifs, including depictions of gods, goddesses, mythological beings, animals, and floral designs. The detailed and precise carvings serve not only as decorative elements but also convey religious stories, symbolizing the divine order and the sacred nature of the temple.
5. Chakra (Wheel) and Motifs
One of the most iconic features of Odisha temple architecture is the Chakra (wheel), which is often featured on the top of the central spire or in other prominent positions. The Chakra represents the divine wheel of time and is a symbol of the god Vishnu. The presence of these motifs, along with others like the Lion, Elephant, and Lion Pillar, indicates the religious significance of the structure.In Odisha temple architecture, the Chakra (wheel) is one of the most prominent and symbolic elements, representing divine energy, cosmic order, and the eternal cycle of time. The Chakra is often depicted as a large, intricately carved wheel, and is typically associated with Lord Vishnu, one of the principal deities in Hinduism. It symbolizes the Sun, the passage of time, and the continuous flow of creation and destruction in the universe. In temples dedicated to Vishnu, like the Jagannath Temple in Puri, the Chakra is prominently placed atop the temple spire or on the central sanctum, where it is believed to convey the divine power and omnipresence of the deity. Apart from the Chakra, Odisha temple architecture features a wide variety of motifs that include floral designs, geometric patterns, mythological creatures, and depictions of gods and celestial beings. These motifs adorn various parts of the temple, from the plinth and walls to the pillars and ceilings. The motifs are not only decorative but are deeply symbolic, representing different aspects of the divine and the spiritual world. For instance, lotus motifs often signify purity and enlightenment, while lion and elephant motifs represent power, royalty, and strength. Together, the Chakra and the various motifs create a sacred visual language, transforming the temple into a spiritual microcosm that connects the earthly realm with the divine cosmos.
Sun Temple:-
This is a UNESCO World Heritage Sight. It was recorded this is a test in 1984. One of the most stunning monuments of religious significance, a true masterpiece of architecture proudly stand in the form of sun temple at Konark. It’s a culmination of Kalinga architecture. The corner temple is dedicated do the sun god. Built in 13th century by king Narasimhadeva, the temple is designed in the shape of a colossal chariot with six horses and twenty four wheels, carrying the sun god, Surya, across heaven. The temple it build of black marbel and thus, is also called the blade pagoda.
The Konark temple is famous not only for the architecture and sculptures but also for the Konark dance festival. The dance festival also Draws the attention of many art lovers in India and across the globe. Classical dances like Bharatnatyam, Odyssey, Kuchipudi to name a few are some of the special attention of the Konark dance festival.
Jagannath temple:-
Jagannath temple in Puri belongs to the 11th century and enjoy the honour of being one of the four dhams of Hindu religion. The main deities are Lord Jagannath, Lord Balabhadra and Goddess Subhadra. The temple was built by Raja Ananta Varman Chodanganga Dev in 12th century.
The two gods and a goddess of the temple are ornamental in accordance with the occasion and season. Best structural design of the temple can be found to be in pyramidal shape. Extending to a height of 214 feet it is one of the tallest temple structures in India. Architecture of the temple shows a huge similarity to Kalinga temple architecture.
Only Hindus of India origin are allowed to enter into the temple premise and held Pooja. Other belief about the temple is that in Kiriti Yuga the actual image of temple god had power of granting Moksha to anyone who witnessed it. Yamaraj didnt find it just, so he decided to keep the image to some distant corner of earth. However, as Dvapar Yuga arrived , the idol that is worshipped today in Jagannath Puri was constructed by Lord Vishnu with the help of wooden logs and despite the lacking hands it doesnt lead to a difference in Gods power.
The main attraction of temple is the annually held Rath yatra.The images of gods are carried in three huge and decorated Chariots in a procession. The history of Jagannath Rath Yatra is about thousand year old and all these years that has not changed is its religious fervour, colourful rituals and unique tradition. The Rath Yatra is world famous and attracts more than million pilgrims annually.
Vaitala Deula Temple:-
It is located in Bhubaneshwar. It is one of the oldest temples in Odisha. The most unique fitted of the temple is it’s sanctuary tower. The semi -cylinderical shape of it’s roof is a leading example of Khakhara order of temples bears an similarity to the Dravidian gopuram of the South Indian temples.
Another striking feature of the temple is tantric Association, the 8 armed goddess Chamunda. The presidng deity, goddess Chamunda sits on a corpse flacked by a jackal and an owl and decorated with the garland of skulls. She holds a snake, bow, shield, sword, trident, thunderbolt and an arrow and is piercing the nake of the demon. The niche is capped by a chaitya window containing seated figures of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati. The tantric character of the temple is also marked by the stone post, to which sacrificial offerings were tethered.
Lingaraj Temple:-
This is the biggest and most celebrated temple of Lord Shiv in the entire Odisha. The temple complex is gigantic in size and covers a huge area. The man is structure in the temple is 180 feet tall and is incircled by a 7 feet thick wall. There are around 100 shrines on the open courtyard. The presiding deity of the temple is God Harihara, a combined form of Loed Vishnu and Shiva. This temple is one of the finest example of Kalinga architecture.
Architecturally, the temples of Odisha can be resolved into 3 broad styles as Rekha, Pidha and Khakhara. Most of the temples of the first two orders have two main components the sanctum, with a convex curvilinear spire and an entrance porch or assembly halls, characterised by a stepped pyramidal roof. The bigger temples may have two to three of these Porches- usually a dance hall and a hall of offering. A Khakhra style is distinguished by a barrel elongated roof, called Khakhra, the local name of a variety of pumpkin- guard.
The outside of the temples are profusely decorated with sculpture relief broadley classified as- hieratic deities, human beings, geometrical, birds and animals and the floral patterns etc.
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